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Text by Nicole Bouglouan
Photographers:
Roger Ahlman
Pbase Galleries Peru and Ecuador
John Anderson
John Anderson Photo Galleries
Jean-Claude Billonneau
Photographe-témoin de la Beauté du Monde
Didier Buysse
Vision d’Oiseaux
Photos d’Alfredo Colón
Puerto Rico Wildlife
Jean Michel Fenerole
Photos d’Oiseaux du monde
Steve Garvie
RAINBIRDER Photo galleries & Flickr Rainbirder
Ken Havard
My Bird Gallery & Flickr gallery 1 & Flickr gallery 2
René Lortie
René Lortie photographe & Galeries d'oiseaux sur Pbase
Tom Merigan
Tom Merigan’s Photo Galleries
Dubi Shapiro
Dubi Shapiro Photo Galleries
Alan & Ann Tate
AA Bird Photography
Ingo Waschkies
Bird Photography
Philippe et Aline Wolfer
OISEAUX D'ARGENTINE
Nicole Bouglouan
Photographic ramble & My pictures on IBC
These images and the text are subject to copyright and cannot be used without express authorization from the owners. Legal issues
Sources :
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD Vol 6 by Josep del Hoyo-Andrew Elliott-Jordi Sargatal - Lynx Edicions, 2001 - ISBN: 848733430X
L’ENCYCLOPEDIE MONDIALE DES OISEAUX - Dr Christopher M. Perrins - BORDAS - ISBN: 2040185607
Martins-pêcheurs, martins-chasseurs, guêpiers et rolliers par Hilary Fry et Kathie Fry – Vigot – ISBN : 2711412679
Bird nests: Variety is Key for the world’s avian Architects
Be on the lookout for bird nests
The design and function of birds' nests
Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia
CREAGUS@Monterey Bay (Don Roberson)
The bird and its nest, where everything starts…
Page 14: Alcedinidae, Todidae, Momotidae, Meropidae, Coraciidae and Brachypteraciidae
At the beginning of the breeding season and following several courtship displays, the nest-site is selected by the pair, or one of the members of the pair, and the nest is built within this area. For numerous species, the nest is the place where displays and copulation occur. It plays a very important role during the nesting period. It is the cradle of the chicks, the place where the adults feed them prior to their first flight towards independence.
The family Alcedinidae is divided into three subfamilies: Halcyoninae, Alcedininae and Cerylinae.
The subfamily Halcyoninae is the largest and the most diverse, with some genera close to the ancestors of this family, and others that are very specialized.
The second subfamily is the Alcedininae and includes small, blue kingfishers. The birds of genus Ceyx are insectivorous and often live in forest and far from water, whereas the genus Alcedo feeds primarily on fish and aquatic insects, and is closely related to water.
The birds of the subfamily Cerylinae are true fishers. They lack any blue in their plumage and have spotted flight-feathers. This subfamily includes the only alcedinids found in America.
Male
Most kingfishers have long, straight, dagger-like bill. The fishers that dive for fish have a long, laterally compressed bill, whereas the species that forage mainly on the ground have shorter and broader bills. The shape of the bill is very well adapted to the foraging behaviour of each species. The legs can be short or longer, depending on the foraging areas, on the ground or in water. They forage during the day.
Kingfishers are usually solitary except when breeding, with some species commonly found in family groups. They are highly territorial and defend their breeding and non-breeding territories. They roost at night in trees or shrubs, often alone, although some species roost with their young in the nesting burrow.
The kingfishers establish territories of varying sizes and they strongly defend them by aerial chases and loud rattle calls. Flying attacks may occur, involving bill-grappling or aerial chases.
The male sings at the beginning of the breeding season. Aerial displays and postures that enhance the colours of the plumage are accompanied by much calling. Courtship feeding occurs until the incubation begins. Most species are monogamous.
Displaying
They nest in tunnels dug in earth banks, or they use tree holes, and occasionally a burrow into the soil around the roots of large trees. Numerous forest kingfishers use the nests or arboreal termites. Some reports mention the use of the burrow of a rabbit, and even in a nest of hornets.
The nest-site is chosen during the courtship period, during which the male probes the soil with its bill while the female calls from a nearby perch. Both mates excavate the burrow, but the male does more than the female. Most nests are excavated within 3-7 days, except in rainy weather.
The entrance is usually between 30 and 60 centimetres below the top of the bank, in order to reduce predation and flooding. The tunnel usually inclines upwards. The nest-chamber is at the end and is unlined.
Several species reuse the same nest-site in several following years, but others dig a new tunnel each year. The length may vary according to the location, from 40-60 centimetres in hard grounds to 2 metres in sandy ground. The longest tunnel is that of the Giant Kingfisher with 8,5 metres.
Most species have clutches of 3-6 white eggs, and the incubation may last from 21-28 days to 32-44 days for the largest species. The chicks are brooded by the female during the first 5-6 days. They are fed with partially digested fish and later, each chick is fed with a whole fish. They leave the nest usually 28 days after hatching and stay with their parents for three weeks during which they are fed by both adults. However, the young Common Kingfisher become independent within a few days of leaving the nest while the adults are raising the next brood. The Alcedo species may have 1-4 broods per season, but most species produce only a single brood every year.
Grey-headed Kingfisher
Close to the nest entrance
The family Todidae includes only five species restricted to the West Indies. All species are very similar in appearance and behaviour. The genus Todus was split from the kingfishers of genus Alcedo in 1760.
Todies have round body, large head and short tail. They often perch with the bill uptilted. Their plumage is emerald green above and creamy-white below. We can see a conspicuous red bib and a long, two-tone bill, making this bird very similar to a small kingfisher or even a hummingbird.
Todies have flat and narrow bill, well-adapted for snapping up insects from the underside of the leaves. This method is named “underleaf-sally” the bird makes a short, parabolic sally, snatches the prey and continues to another perch. Very agile in flight, it also hovers in mid-air, and uses various foraging techniques to reach the food items.
They can be found in a wide range of habitats, from 50 metres above sea-level to over 3,000 metres of elevation. They usually frequent brushy areas and forests with epiphytes, vines, entangled twigs and leaves. They usually fly only 1-2 metres at time.
They are strictly territorial, but occasionally, they may join mixed-species feeding flocks. Todies are monogamous. During the displays, male and female chase each other with loud whirring sound produced by the wings. Other display shows the bird fluffing out the pink feathers of the flanks. Courtship feeding is also reported, both during courtship and incubation or nestling care.
Todies nest in short burrows. They excavate a cylindrical, angled tunnel in vertical bank, less than 1,5 metres of height, with moderately overgrown vegetation that stabilizes the soil and provides some protection against mongooses (Herpestes).
The tunnel is usually horizontal, rarely inclined, and the unlined nest-chamber is at the end. The burrow lengths varies from 12 to 60 centimetres, with a diameter of about 3,4/4,4 centimetres, according to the species. A fresh tunnel is dug each year. The flooded nests are abandoned.
The tunnel is dug with the chisel-like bill, and later, the fresh dirt is scraped with the small feet. This work requires about 8 weeks for completion. Both mates dig the burrow together, and the pair-bond appears very strong during the excavation. The nest-site is defended by both adults against other birds, people or mongooses.
One to four eggs are laid and both parents share the incubation during 21-22 days. The chicks are altricial and hatch naked. They are fed on various insect species. They leave the nest about three weeks after hatching and often remain in the surroundings. They are usually fed during three weeks after fledging.
Broad-billed Tody
Feeding a juvenile
The family Momotidae is closely related to Alcedinidae (kingfishers), Meropidae (bee-eaters) and Todidae (todies). They are fairly similar in appearance and behaviour and share some features such as bright plumage with sexes usually alike, they hunt by aerial sallies and nest in excavated burrows.
Motmots are medium-sized to medium-large arboreal bird species. The head is large and the long, stout bill is slightly decurved, but its shape may vary depending on the species. Some birds have serrated cutting edges on both mandibles, but these serrations also vary from very fine to coarse or very coarse, the latter being described as peaked undulations.
These differences are related to the feeding behaviour of each species and genus.
They have short legs and small, weak feet. The wings are short and rounded. The tail is graduated, with longer central rectrices sometimes ending in a racquet-like tip.
The plumage is a combination of green, blue and rufous. The striking head pattern often includes black and turquoise (from greenish-blue to blue or violet). We can see one or two black spots on the breast of most species. Male and female are similar, but males are slightly larger with longer tail.
The Momotidae frequent a wide variety or more or less wooded areas and can be seen in humid evergreen forests but also in arid deciduous forests. Some species are able to adapt to man-made habitats such as plantations and gardens. They need earth banks in which they can excavate the nesting burrow.
Motmots often perch motionless, and can be detected only by the sideways movements of the long tail or by a sudden sally to catch a prey. They take their prey from leaves, twigs or branches of trees or other vegetation, and can be seen on the ground too. The larger species also consume fruits plucked in aerial sallies from perches.
They feed their young with the same food items, but the small young are fed with mashed food in the adult’s bill, whereas the larger chicks are fed with whole food items. The chicks are fed first with insects and other prey, and fruits are given later, about 10-13 days after hatching.
The Momotidae are fairly similar in their breeding behaviour, with the exception of the Tody Motmot, a morphologically atypical and probably primitive species. Its nest is not described.
The motmots nest in burrows and both mates share this work. The tunnel is excavated in earth bank, and the oval-shaped nest-chamber is at the end. The pairs are solitary nesters, but when suitable nesting sites are limited, several burrows may be concentrated in small groups or even in larger colonies.
The adults use their feet to loosen the earth which is progressively kicked backwards and out of the hole. The tunnel is often straight, but some burrows may have bends of 90° according to the roots or other obstruction present in the soil. The burrows of the larger species may be long, as much as 3-5 metres. This work may take several weeks. The entrance is concealed by roots, vegetation and falling leaves as the season progresses. A new burrow is dug for each nesting season, often close to the previous.
The clutch is usually of 3-5 white, nearly spherical eggs. Both parents share the incubation and feed the young. The fledglings are fed for some days after leaving the nest.
The family Meropidae includes Old World bird species named bee-eaters, because they are specialized predators of bees and various other Hymenopterans.
Most species live in Africa, some others are found in S Asia and SE Asia, one species occurs far north in Eurasia and another one in Australia.
Bee-eaters are medium-sized birds with bright-coloured plumage. The wings are medium to long and the tail is often elongated into narrow streamers. The legs are short but strong. The eyes are brown, red-brown or red. The bill is long and decurved, with sharp edges of the jaws. This feature is adapted to the feeding behaviour, especially when the bird crushes insects with the bill tip.
The bee-eaters require elevated perches for hunting, and suitable soil in which to dig the nesting burrow. Several species are closely associated with rainforest, but they are usually found along rivers or off trees overhanging ravines, and generally in edge habitats. They hunt on the wing and none is confined to a type of vegetation dominated by some plant species.
The Blue-headed Bee-eater is the only one living inside the rainforest, foraging close to the ground almost in the dark between large trees.
Bee-eaters are diurnal, feeding and migrating by day. Most of them are aerial hunters of insect prey. They perform flycatching sallies from elevated perches (but closer to the ground for the smaller species), or feed in continuous flight.
The main prey are Hymenoptera such as bees, wasps and their allies, varying from 20 to 96% of the diet, depending on the species. Honeybees, bumblebees and sweat-bees (Trigona) are also taken. Each species adapts its hunting behaviour to the type of prey, in order to catch numerous insects.
The bird flies directly at the prey and catches it with the bill pointed forwards. The dangerous stingers are taken with the extreme tip of the bill and nibbled for several seconds. Then, the prey is tossed up in mid-air and chewed again. Other species beat and rub the large hornets and return to the perch to remove the sting before eating the insect.
The courtship displays are not spectacular, with some calling and fluffed out throat and wing feathers. Some species such as the White-throated Bee-eater perform a “butterfly display”, a gliding flight with shallow wingbeats, followed by wing-displays on perch while calling. Courtship feeding is reported in numerous species.
All bee-eater species are earth-hole nesters. They excavate their own tunnel, with an oval-shaped nest-chamber at the end. The tunnel is dug in level ground or in earthen cliff face.
The birds use both their sharp bill and sharp-clawed feet to excavate the burrow. This work takes at least a week but usually more to dig, during which the bird’s bill becomes worn and shortens by about 2mm. The burrows dug at ground level are more exposed to predation, flooding and trampling by large animals, whereas the burrows excavated in cliffs are more protected.
Nest entrance
Nest site
Several species, usually the smallest, nest solitary, while others breed in loose to large colonies.
The porcelain-like eggs take 2-6 fays for hatching, and the nestling period lasts about one month. The chicks hatch naked, blind and pink. They are feed by both parents, and by one or up to five helpers (in largest colonies), usually males of the previous year.
At nest entrance
The family Coraciidae includes twelve species of rollers divided into two genera, Coracias and Eurystomus. Rollers are medium-sized birds with bright-coloured plumage, short legs and sometimes long tail-streamers. The bill is slightly hooked at tip.
The rollers are related to the Leptosomidae (Page 13) and the Brachypteraciidae. All species are hole-nesting perching birds and sit-and-wait hunters.
They are found in Africa and parts of Asia and Australia and the twelve species live in the Old World tropics. Both genera are morphologically similar except for the bill shape, and their plumages display the same basic colours. However, they differ in their flight and foraging habits.
Rollers have large head, short neck, short legs and weak feet. They are mainly arboreal and often perch in trees. They may come to the ground where they walk or hop to catch a prey. Head, neck and bill are powerful and adapted to the sometimes dangerous prey that they take.
The eight Coracias species have more or less the same foraging behaviour and diet. They feed on insects such as large beetles and grasshoppers, other invertebrates including scorpions, and also small vertebrates.
The bird perches 3-6 metres above the ground and turns its head or moves from time to time. Once an insect is spotted, it may take a few seconds before launching itself downwards and then, it drops with one or two wingbeats, before gliding down and alighting close to the prey. It grabs it with the bill or pursues it briefly on the ground. The prey is usually crushed in the bill and beaten a few times against a branch, before to be swallowed whole.
The birds of genus Eurystomus perform mainly aerial hunting, foraging above the forest canopy with fast, powerful, falcon-like flight and flying out from perch to pursue passing insects. The Broad-billed Roller usually perches on bare branch from which it flies out to catch passing prey. The victim is eaten on the wing after aerial chase with fast glides.
The Dollarbird also performs falcon-like flight to catch large insects that are dismembered by shaking before to be eaten.
All rollers are closely related to trees providing nesting holes and numerous perches. They rest and hunt from trees, even in open countryside. Man-made habitats are also exploited and include farmland, parks and large gardens with scattered large trees, but also buildings and lampposts providing hunting perches.
European Roller
Artificial nest-box
The rollers nest in elevated holes such as tree holes, crevices in cliff faces or cavities in buildings. Abandoned woodpecker or starling nests can be used too. However, the European Roller may sometimes excavate burrows 60 centimetres long in earthen banks.
The territory is often proclaimed by rolling displays. These flights are usually aggressive and clearly directed at an intruder, but they are also used to maintain the pair-bond between mates. In the European Roller, only the male performs this flight, indicating that it is used mainly to advertise the territory.
European Roller
Visiting a rocky crevice
The nest is a simple pad of plant materials used as lining on the floor of the hole, but this lining is usually very light. The clutches contain 2-4 white, almost spherical eggs in the tropics, but up to 6 at higher latitudes. The female incubates alone at night but both adults rear the chicks. At hatching, the chicks are naked and blind. They fledge 25-30 days after hatching. They are dependent on parents for food for some days.
The breeding biology of most species of rollers is poorly known, due to the inaccessibility of their nest-sites, usually high in trees, cliff faces or buildings.
Indian Roller
At nest in tree hole
The family Brachypteraciidae is endemic to Madagascar. The ground-rollers are closely related to the rollers (Coraciidae) and the Cuckoo-roller (Leptosomidae) and all were considered a single family until recently. However, due to different behaviour, plumage and other morphological features, the ground-rollers have now their own family.
From J. Cracraft, the Brachypteraciidae are the result of an invasion of rollers from Africa.
The ground-rollers have basically cryptic plumage on the upperparts, with bronzy-green and brownish colours. But head, flight-feathers and outer rectrices are usually brighter coloured. The stout body, the strong, long legs and the zygodactylous feet reflect their terrestrial lifestyle. They have stout bill with slit-like nostrils at base and long bristles around it, and the long tongue has a brush-like tip. These features are probably an adaptation to catch insects that are their main food.
They are very active while searching for prey on the ground. They feed on invertebrates (insects) and sometimes small vertebrates such as small chameleons.
They nest in excavated burrows in steep earth banks, below overhanging vegetation, but the Long-tailed Ground-Roller excavates its burrow in consolidated sand, usually in bare areas without grassy vegetation. The burrows have a nest-chamber with soft lining at the end, where the female lays her eggs and incubates.
But the Short-legged Ground-Roller is the only member of this family that nests in tree cavities. The nest of this species was discovered and described only in 1996, in a natural cavity in dead branch of tree, about 18 metres above the ground.
Unlike other species, this one nests in tree cavity above the ground instead in burrow. It is more arboreal and forages in the canopy, hunts by sally-gleaning or pursues a prey in flight, even in closed environment. It is considered the most primitive living ground-roller.
The laying occurs mostly in December, and 1-4 white eggs are laid, usually two. The nesting behaviour is poorly known. The female appears to incubate alone while the male remains in the surroundings, and may sometimes feed the female during this period that lasts at least 18 days, but mostly 22-26 days.
